Cervical lymphadenopathy in children

Summary

Cervical lymphadenopathy (LAD) is a > 1 cm enlargement of lymph nodes in the neck. In children, cervical LAD is common and most often represents an inflammatory response to an acute infection, such as a viral upper respiratory infection or strep throat. Less commonly, it can signal a more serious underlying condition (e.g., malignancy, mycobacterial infection, autoimmune disease). Benign nodes are typically small and mobile, while concerning nodes may be large, firm, fixed, and/or accompanied by constitutional symptoms. Diagnosis is primarily clinical, but diagnostic evaluation (e.g., laboratory studies, imaging, lymph node biopsy) may be required in the case of red flag features or diagnostic uncertainty. Management is directed at the underlying cause (e.g., observation for viral infections; antibiotics for suspected bacterial lymphadenitis). Prompt specialist referral is indicated for features suggesting malignancy or other systemic conditions.

Definitions

Cervical lymphadenopathy is an enlargement of any cervical lymph node to > 1 cm in diameter or a palpable supraclavicular lymph node of any size. [1][2]
The jugulodigastric lymph node is an exception; a diameter up to 1.5 cm is normal in children < 12 years of age. [1][2]

Etiology

Cervical LAD in children is most often caused by an infectious etiology. Approximately 45% of otherwise healthy children have isolated cervical LAD on physical examination. [1][3]

Acute cervical LAD [1][4][5]

Cervical LAD in children is considered acute if present < 2 weeks. [1][6]

Infectious causes

Viruses
- Common respiratory viruses (e.g., adenovirus, influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, coronavirus)
- Enterovirus (i.e., coxsackievirus)
- Rubella
- Measles
- HSV
- Varicella zoster virus
Bacteria
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Streptococcus pyogenes
- Oral anaerobes
- Less commonly, Haemophilus influenzae, Group B Streptococcus , and Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Noninfectious causes

Kawasaki disease
Serum sickness
Immunizations (e.g., DTaP, polio, typhoid fever vaccines)

Most acute cervical LAD in children is due to viral respiratory infections or acute bacterial lymphadenitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes. [1][4]

Subacute and chronic cervical LAD [1][4][5]

Cervical LAD in children is considered subacute if present for 2–6 weeks and chronic if present for ≥ 6 weeks. [1][6]

Infectious

Viruses
- EBV and CMV: most common
- HIV
Bacteria
- Bartonella henselae
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Nontuberculous mycobacteria (e.g., Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, Mycobacterium scrofulaceum)
- Pasteurella multocida
- Nocardia brasiliensis
- Treponema pallidum
Protozoa: Toxoplasma gondii
Fungi (e.g., Candida, Histoplasma, Coccidioides, and Aspergillus spp.)

Noninfectious

Autoimmune conditions, e.g.:
- Juvenile idiopathic arthritis
- Systemic lupus erythematosus
Malignancy, e.g.:
- Leukemia
- Lymphoma
- Neuroblastoma
- Rhabdomyosarcoma
- Metastatic nasopharyngeal cancer [2]
Self-limited inflammatory conditions, e.g.:
- PFAPA syndrome [7]
- Necrotizing lymphadenitis
- Rosai-Dorfman-Destombes disease

Cervical LAD lasting > 6 months without change in size and character or associated systemic symptoms has a low likelihood of being neoplastic in origin. [1][3]

Clinical evaluation

Focused history [1][5]

Onset, duration, and progression (e.g., change in size or character) of enlarged lymph nodes
Associated symptoms
- Localized pain and/or tenderness
- Constitutional symptoms
- Symptoms suggesting a primary source of infection, e.g.:
  - URI symptoms (e.g., sore throat, rhinorrhea, cough)
  - Bacterial infection in the head and neck region (e.g., acute tonsillitis and pharyngitis, periodontal disease)
  - Periodontal disease
- Red flags for cervical LAD in children
- Growth faltering [4]
Exposures to:
[5]
- Illness (e.g., tuberculosis)
- Travel
- Animals (e.g., cats or cat feces, rabbits, sheep)
- Recent vaccination (e.g., with DTaP, polio, typhoid fever vaccines)
Relevant medical history (e.g., immunosuppressed state)

Focused examination [4][5]

Vital signs, general appearance
Head and neck examination, including:
- Palpation of head and neck lymph nodes
  
  Size
  
  Tenderness, warmth, erythema
  
  Consistency (e.g., soft, fluctuant, firm, rubbery)
  
  Mobile vs. fixed
  
  Unilateral vs. bilateral
- Signs of underlying etiology in the drainage region (including the oropharynx and dentition) [4]
Assessment for red flags for cervical LAD in children

Examine all lymph node regions in children with cervical LAD, as systemic infections (e.g., due to EBV, CMV, HIV, or M. tuberculosis), autoimmune conditions, serum sickness, and malignancy may cause generalized LAD. [3][5]

Red flags for cervical LAD in children [1][5]

The following features prompt evaluation for serious underlying etiology (e.g., malignancy, granulomatous disease, autoimmune conditions).

Lymph node characteristics
- Size > 2 cm and/or rapidly enlarging lymph nodes
- Supraclavicular lymph node and/or lower cervical chain lymph nodes (any size)
- Lymph nodes that are hard, firm, rubbery, matted, or fixed
- Lymphadenopathy > 4 weeks
- Generalized lymphadenopathy
Associated features, including:
- B symptoms
- Hepatosplenomegaly
- Bruising
- Rash
- Arthralgia and/or myalgia
Children ≥ 8 years of age (red flag for malignancy)

Supraclavicular LAD and posterior cervical triangle LAD carry a much higher risk for malignancy or tuberculosis infection than anterior cervical LAD. [2][4]

Diagnosis

General principles [1][5]

Diagnostic studies are not routinely recommended.
Consider targeted diagnostics as needed based on the most likely underlying etiology.
Refer to a pediatric specialist (e.g., infectious disease, ENT,
hematology-oncology, rheumatology) for:
- Atypical infection (e.g., unresponsive to antibiotics)
- Red flags for cervical LAD in children
- Diagnostic uncertainty
See "Common causes of cervical LAD in children" for characteristic diagnostic findings.

Reactive LAD caused by a viral URTI is the most common cause of acute cervical LAD in children and is diagnosed clinically.[1][5]

Laboratory studies [4][5]

Perform laboratory studies based on suspected underlying etiology of cervical LAD in children, e.g.:

Bacterial infection
- CBC
- Blood culture (in febrile or ill-appearing patients)
- Specific diagnostics for suspected causative organism, e.g.:
  - Diagnostics of acute tonsillitis
  - Diagnostics for tuberculosis
  - Diagnostics for cat scratch disease
- Fine-needle aspiration and Gram stain, acid-fast stain, and cultures of lymph node material for anaerobic and aerobic bacteria and mycobacteria
Viral infection
- EBV serology
- Diagnostics for CMV
- HIV testing
Malignancy: CBC, peripheral smear, LDH
Inflammatory conditions: inflammatory markers (e.g., ESR, CRP)

Imaging [5][8][9]

Imaging is not routinely indicated in the evaluation of cervical LAD in children.

Diagnostic uncertainty:
ultrasound neck
with or without color Doppler ultrasound

Preferred first-line modality in children

Useful to differentiate between reactive lymphadenopathy and malignancy

See "Lymph node ultrasound findings" for details.
Suspected
malignancy or
deep neck infection

CT scan neck with IV contrast

MRI neck with or without IV contrast
Suspected lymphoma or granulomatous disease: chest x-ray

Biopsy [5][5][10]

Indications
- LAD of unclear etiology lasting > 4 weeks and unresponsive to antibiotic therapy
- Red flags for cervical LAD in children
- Diagnostic uncertainty
Modalities
- Excisional biopsy: preferred if lymphoma is suspected
- Core needle biopsy: Consider as an alternative to excisional biopsy in selected patients.
- Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy: Consider for persistent LAD of unclear etiology.

Management

Outpatient management is usually appropriate. Consider symptomatic and supportive care (e.g., antipyretics, nonopioid oral analgesia in children) as needed. [5]

Admit acutely ill children to hospital and consult a specialist (e.g., infectious diseases, critical care). Begin management of pediatric sepsis, if indicated.

Treatment of the underlying cause [5]

Isolated cervical LAD with no red flag features in an otherwise healthy child: reassurance and observation
Acute lymphadenitis likely due to a viral URTI: observation with follow-up in 2–4 weeks [4]
Acute
lymphadenitis likely due to a bacterial infection
- Initiate antibiotic therapy (e.g., empiric antibiotic therapy for acute unilateral pyogenic cervical lymphadenitis, antibiotic therapy for GAS pharyngitis).
- Tailor antibiotics when culture and sensitivities are available.
See "Common causes of cervical LAD in children" for details.

Avoid corticosteroids in patients with suspected acute lymphadenitis until a definitive diagnosis is made; corticosteroids can alter the histopathological appearance of lymphoma or malignancy. [5]

Referrals [5]

Suspected malignancy: urgent referral to hematology-oncology
Suspected periodontal disease: pediatric dentist
Other specialists (e.g., infectious diseases,
surgery, rheumatology) for additional studies and management of:
- Persistent LAD after observation for suspected viral etiology
- Inadequate response to antibiotic therapy within 72 hours
- Atypical infection (e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacteria, fungal infection) [4]
- Suspected rheumatologic condition

Common causes

Common causes of acute cervical LAD in children

Common causes of acute cervical LAD in children [1][4][5]
‎	Clinical features	Diagnostic findings	Management
Viral upper respiratory infection [1]	URI symptoms Node characteristics Bilateral Soft, small, mobile Tender	Clinical diagnosis	Supportive care
GAS pharyngitis [11][12]	Constitutional symptoms Acute bacterial tonsillopharyngitis Scarlet fever Node characteristics Bilateral Tender	Rapid strep: positive Throat culture: S. pyogenes	Supportive care for sore throats Antibiotic therapy for GAS pharyngitis
Acute unilateral pyogenic cervical lymphadenitis [3][4][6][13]	Most common in children aged 1–4 years [4][14] Constitutional symptoms Node characteristics [4] Unilateral Submandibular and upper cervical lymph nodes (most common) [1][6] Tender, mobile Overlying erythema May be fluctuant Typically large (> 2 cm) [5][6] Features of the primary infection may be present, e.g.: [6] URTI symptoms Impetigo Earache Dental or periodontal disease	Clinical diagnosis [13] FNA culture (if performed) : usually Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus [4] Lymph node ultrasound (if performed): [9] Peripheral inflammation Increased vascularity Anechoic regions Abscess may be present	See "Empiric antibiotic therapy for acute unilateral pyogenic lymphadenitis."
Kawasaki disease (KD) [15][16]	Most common in children aged < 5 years Cervical LAD ≥ 1.5 cm (often unilateral) Other principal clinical features of KD, e.g.: Fever ≥ 5 days Conjunctivitis Strawberry tongue Polymorphous rash Erythema and edema of hands and feet	Clinical diagnosis based on diagnostic criteria for KD	IVIg and aspirin See "Treatment of KD."

The most common causes of acute unilateral cervical lymphadenitis in children are Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. [1][4]

The most common causes of acute bilateral cervical lymphadenitis in children are viral infections and GAS infections. [1][4]

Common causes of subacute and chronic cervical LAD in children

Common causes of subacute and chronic cervical LAD in children [1][5]
‎	Clinical features	Diagnostic findings	Management
Infectious mononucleosis [17][18]	Posterior cervical LAD Other clinical features of infectious mononucleosis, e.g.: Fatigue Fever Pharyngitis, tonsillitis Splenomegaly Rash	Clinical diagnosis Monospot test may be positive. [1] Positive EBV serology or CMV serology	EBV: supportive care CMV: Consider antiviral therapy. See "Treatment of infectious mononucleosis."
Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection [1]	Node characteristics Persistent LAD despite antibiotic therapy Submandibular or upper anterior cervical chain Indurated, fluctuant Overlying skin changes No constitutional symptoms	PPD: negative or weakly positive Acid-fast stain: positive, bacilli Culture: Mycobacterial spp. Biopsy: noncaseating granulomatous inflammation	Refer to specialists, e.g.: Surgical excision of affected node(s) Infectious disease consult for antibiotics
Mycobacteria tuberculosis [19]	Risk factors for TB [1] Asymptomatic (latent TB) or clinical features of active TB. Node characteristics [20] Lymphadenitis: firm, mobile, discrete lymph nodes Periadenitis: rubbery, fixed lymph nodes Cold abscess: soft, fluctuant lymph nodes Draining sinus tract	Diagnostic studies differ for latent TB and active TB; see "Tuberculosis" for details. Lymph node ultrasound or CT neck [9][19] Matted nodes Central necrosis Peripheral enhancement FNAC or excisional biopsy Acid-fast bacilli Granulomatous inflammation	Infectious disease referral for multidrug antibiotic therapy
Localized cat scratch disease [4][6]	History of cat scratch or bite Node characteristics Typically unilateral, submandibular Can suppurate	Bartonella spp.: IgM positive or IgG titer ≥ 1:256 [21]	Supportive care Antibiotics may hasten resolution. See “Treatment of cat scratch disease.”
Malignancy [1][5]	B symptoms Age ≥ 8 years Hepatosplenomegaly Node characteristics Rapidly enlarging and/or > 2 cm Supraclavicular lymph node and/or lower cervical chain lymph nodes (any size) Hard, firm, rubbery, immobile, or fixed Generalized lymphadenopathy Duration: usually 1–6 months	↑ LDH Lymph node ultrasound [1][22] Round Irregular borders Absent or eccentric hilum Cystic or coagulative necrosis Eccentric cortical hypertrophy in nodes with tumor infiltration Reticulation in lymphomatous nodes Abnormal capsular vascularity CXR: mediastinal widening may be present Biopsy: features specific to the type of malignancy	Urgent referral to pediatric oncology
Toxoplasmosis [1][23]	Often asymptomatic Node characteristics Nontender Posterior cervical and/or occipital Exposure to cats and/or undercooked pork	T. gondii antibody: positive See "Diagnostics for toxoplasmosis"	Supportive care unless immunocompromised and/or ocular involvement See "Treatment of toxoplasmosis."
PFAPA syndrome [7]	Recurring episodes of high fevers lasting 3–7 days Associated pharyngitis and/or aphthous stomatitis Node characteristics [24] Bilateral Tender Usually < 5 cm in size	Clinical diagnosis using validated criteria (e.g., modified Marshall score) ↑ Acute phase reactants during acute flares	Supportive care with: Antipyretics Corticosteroids during acute flares Colchicine or cimetidine ENT referral for tonsillectomy

**Abnormal lymph node in lymphoma**
Ultrasound lymph node (with color Doppler; longitudinal plane) of a patient with lymphoma
An enlarged lymph node has maintained a reniform shape and well-demarcated margins. However, the region of the normally echogenic fatty hilum is atypically small (green overlay), and the node is more hypoechoic than normal, with increased posterior acoustic enhancement (yellow overlay). In addition, the parenchyma shows a pattern of reticulation (examples indicated by arrowheads), which has been described in lymphomatous nodes.
Ultrasound performed for lymph node evaluation assesses such characteristics as size, shape, parenchymal heterogeneity, cortical thickness, margin sharpness, and hilar visibility. There is an overlap in the ultrasound appearances of lymph nodes in primary and secondary malignancy and benign nodal disease.
Red and blue: hilar vessels

Image source of original image: sonographiebilder.de - Innere Medizin des Albertinen-Krankenhauses Hamburg. Original title: “Lymphom_Farbe_02”. Created by: Dr. J. Guntau. Modifications to original image: text removed, cropped image.

Mimics

Cervical lymphadenopathy is the most common neck mass in children. Other causes of neck masses in children include:

Congenital and developmental neck masses
[2]
[4]
[8]
- Thyroglossal duct cyst (second most common neck mass in children) [25]
- Branchial cleft cyst
- Dermoid cyst, epidermoid cyst
- Cystic hygroma
- Laryngocele
- Fibromatosis colli and congenital muscular torticollis
- Vascular malformations and tumors
Neoplastic masses
[2]
- Thyroid cancer
- Tumors of the salivary glands
- Benign soft tissue tumor (e.g., pilomatrixomas, lipomas, fibromas, neurofibromas)
- Rhabdomyosarcoma
- Neuroblastoma [25]
- Metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Other neck masses
[4]
- Parotitis (e.g., due to mumps)
- Cervical rib
See also "Mimics" in “Lymphadenopathy.”

External Resources

2019 ACR Appropriateness Criteria: Neck Mass-Adenopathy

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"Cervical Lymphadenitis"